A significant part of opium and its derivative heroin on the market in China originates from the ‘Golden Triangle’ – roughly the area that spans northern Burma, Thailand and Laos. It supplies a large number of injecting drugs users in China, and is considered a major security concern by the Chinese authorities. To counter this threat, the Chinese government have launched opium substitution programmes in northern Burma and Laos. The schemes, promoting agricultural investments by Chinese companies, have seen a dramatic increase in recent years. They include large-scale rubber plantations and other crops such as sugarcane, tea and corn. Most contracts are made with local state and military authorities and companies rather than with local communities. it remains to be seen whether China’s opium crop substitution policy is achieving its goals – to reduce opium cultivation and provide sustainable alternative local livelihoods in Burma and Laos – by promoting large-scale rubber and other mono-crop plantations.